1 Introduction
Although the valves which eventually led to the dominance of
the chromatic horn were invented early in the Romantic period
of music (1830 - 1914), many musicians continued, throughout
much of the 19th century, to favour the natural horn. Many
composers wrote parts for the chromatic horn which were
influenced by the character of the older instrument, and some
continued to write parts for natural horn well into the time
when all players owned and used a chromatic one. Moreover,
there were differences in national traditions of horn playing
which were reflected in the design and manufacture of the
instruments. These aspects of the horn and some of the
interrelationships among them are considered below.
2 The horn before 1830
Morley-Pegge1 reproduces a print from a woodcut made by
Sebastian Brandt (1457-1521) to illustrate a 1502 Strasbourg
edition of Virgil's works. It shows two musicians, one
playing a trumpet with two folds, the other what appears to be
a horn with four (Morley-Pegge sees only three) open coils and
a smallish (but larger than that of the trumpet) bell. The
musician is wearing the instrument around his neck and holding
it with both hands; the bell projects forward to the left of
his head. Its layout is nevertheless such as to allow him to
bring the mouthpiece to his lips. Assuming that the musician
had a height of 160 cm. (5 ft. 3 ins.), the instrument would
have had a length of 590 cm. and been pitched in the unusual
key of A basso. If, however, Morley-Pegge is correct in
seeing three coils, then the original instrument would have
been in the usual key, for a hunting horn, of D.
Some 250 years later, Carlin of Paris made a horn, also
illustrated by Morley-Pegge2, which differed relatively little
from the early 16th century model. It has three open coils
and plays in D. Its mouthpiece is detachable. (Whether the
16th century mouthpiece is integral or detachable is unclear
from the illustration.) Its bell is placed opposite the
mouthpipe, so that when played it projects its sound to the
rear of the player. Morley-Pegge suggests that it may be an
orchestral horn, since two coils were more normal for a
hunting horn of the middle of the 18th century.
About that time, after two and a half centuries of very slow
development, the horn established a regular place in the
orchestra and began a similar period of rapid evolution and
diversification. One important constructional development had
already been made: the use of detachable crooks on a common
body, instead of complete horns in different keys, has been
shown by Fitzpatrick3 to date from the early years of the 18th
century.
A major innovation in playing technique was the use of the
hand in the bell, both to modify the tone of the horn and to
adjust the tuning. This is attributed to a horn player in the
Dresden orchestra, Anton Joseph Hampel or Hampl, though
Morley-Pegge4 considers that he may merely have “extended and
codified a technique about which something must have been
known much earlier, ...”. The hand horn technique overcomes
the limitation of the natural horn to the notes of the
harmonic series, at the expense of some variation of tone
quality, which the best players strive, with fair success, to
minimise. For some 50 years after its first use in public
(probably5 by Rodolphe, a horn player in the service of the
Duke of Parma, between 1754 and 1760), hand horn technique was
restricted to soloists of some virtuosity, such as Hampel
himself, the celebrated Giovanni Punto, and Mozart's friend
Leutgeb. Orchestral horn parts used very largely the
harmonics which needed no modification, though we may
conjecture that the players would soon have learnt to use the
hand to correct the intonation of the 7th and 11th harmonics
(a slightly flat written B flat and a note halfway between written
F and F# respectively) which were common in orchestral parts.
In chamber music, on the other hand, composers expected and
exploited virtuosity. For example, the first horn part of the
Spohr Octet (for clarinet,
two horns, violin, two violas, violoncello and double bass) of
1814 has florid passages, in semiquavers at 60 minims to the
minute, which incorporate both open and stopped notes. Both the
horns parts of this attractive work remain challenging on modern
instruments.
A horn with a complete set of terminal crooks (ie inserted
between the mouthpiece and the body) for each of the keys in
which it is expected to play can be designed so that the
relationship between the mouthpiece and the bell is the same
in all keys. However, the more common system (because
cheaper) for terminal crooks in multiple keys is to have two
or at most three crooks incorporating a tapered mouthpipe in
which the mouthpiece can be inserted, extended by couplers of
constant cross section to give the other keys. A system with
which the author is familiar has two crooks (giving B flat alto
and F) and four such couplers, of different sizes, up to three
of which may need to be inserted between the crook and the
body to put the horn into an unusual key such as F# or C#. A
disadvantage (albeit not, in the author's experience, severe) is
that the relationship between the mouthpiece and the bell varies
with the number of couplers.
Hampel was sufficiently dissatisfied with this characteristic
that, some time in the 1750s6, he
designed a new type of
horn with a mouthpipe fixed to the body of the instrument and
means by which parallel tubing of various lengths could be
inserted to lengthen the hoop tubing. This design, first made
by Johann Werner of Dresden, became, after improvement of the
method by which the extra tubing was attached, the preferred
design of horn in Germany, where it was known as the
Inventionshorn7. Hampel's original
design had a tenon and
socket joint for the extra tubing. This proving somewhat less
than satisfactory, Haltenhof, of Hanau-am-Main, invented a new
joint8, still in use today, with
close fitting tubes sliding
one inside the other. Grease ensures a good seal and prevents
the metal surfaces binding together. Another application of
the new joint was in the tuning slide, which began to be
added, about this time, onto terminally crooked instruments.
On tenon and socket jointed Inventionshorns, tuning was by
insertion of straight pieces of parallel tubing of various
(fairly short) lengths.
About 1780, the celebrated Paris horn maker, Raoux, took the
Inventionshorn as his model and modified it by lengthening the
body and providing crooks (of Haltenhof's double slide
variety) only for the keys of G, F, E, E flat and D. This
instrument was known as the cor solo, since it was suitable
for solos, concertos and chamber music but not for the
orchestra, because of its lack of the complete range of keys.
With more tapered and less parallel tubing than the
Inventionshorn in the same keys, it probably had superior
acoustic characteristics and tuning. Its high reputation is
illustrated by its use by Punto, by Türreschmidt and Palsa,
successful duettists in Paris (Türreschmidt collaborated with
Raoux in the design of this instrument), and by Dauprat and
Gallay, professors of horn at the Paris Conservatoire from
1816 to 1842 and from 1842 to 1864 respectively. Puzzi
(1792-1876), another celebrated virtuoso, who lived and worked
in England after 1817, owned two9.
3 Valves
Throughout the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries and for much of
the 19th, both fixed length and variable length brass
instruments were used, though only latterly in the same
ensembles. Myers10,
Polk11, and
Duffin12 deduce, largely but
not entirely from iconographic evidence, that a trumpet with a
single action slide was used with shawms to perform
contrapuntal music during the 15th century and possibly even
from as early as 1380. McGowan13 places the invention of the
sackbut in the second half of the 15th century, and shows
illustrations of sackbuts in a woodcut, “The triumph of
Maximilian”, of 1512 to 1519 which closely resemble surviving
late 16th century instruments. No surviving Renaissance slide
trumpet is known, and its existence is not generally accepted.
If it did exist, its larger sizes were superseded by the alto
trombone and its smaller sizes by the cornett, a conical lip
reed (ie blown like trumpet and trombone) instrument with
finger holes, suitable for florid contrapuntal music.
With the trombone still extant in the 18th century, one may
wonder why no serious attempt appears to have been made to use
a slide to give chromatic capability to the horn during the
classical period. One reason may have been the remarkable
capability of the best hand horn players. Another is that the
trombones covered much of the range of the horn and were the
traditional instruments from the brass family on which to
perform contrapuntal music.
Smithers14 points out that,
during Mozart's employment at Salzburg, horns were generally
excluded from performances of liturgical music “... because
of their highly visible (and audible) associations with
venery (in both senses of the word!) ...”; and liturgical
music was where contrapuntal capability was needed. In the
classical symphony, horns spent most of their time as part of
the harmonie, reinforcing chords when they had appropriate
notes to contribute and tacet otherwise. The trumpet remained
the instrument with least chromatic capability, though
attempts were made with the keyed trumpet (c. 1770) and the
keyed bugle (1810) to provide a high ranging chromatic
instrument with brass timbre.
Eventually, engineering and manufacturing made sufficient
progress to produce a rapid, reliable and air-tight means of
switching extra lengths of tubing into horns and trumpets.
The first valve for the horn seems to have been that of
Heinrich Stölzel, reported, though not described, in 1815. In
1818, Stölzel took out a joint patent with Friedrich Blühmel
for a piston valve of square cross section. Morley-Pegge
deduces that the first valve was probably a piston valve of
circular cross section, possibly with deficiencies. Valves
attributed to Stölzel arrived in Paris in 1826, on a trumpet.
Their design was improved by the Paris maker Labbaye, who won
a silver medal at the Paris Industrial Exhibition of 1827 with
a horn incorporating them. However, neither of these two
designs has survived into the twentieth century: the square
piston was too heavy, and the original circular piston had
acoustically undesirable sharp right angled turns in the
windway. The modern piston valve has the circular cross
section of the Stölzel valve and the smooth transverse windway
of the square Blühmel valve. It was invented by Périnet, of
Paris, in 1839 and, as improved by Besson, Courtois and Dr
J. P. Oates, has survived to the present, though mostly on
trumpets and brass band instruments. The rotary valve seems
to have arisen in Vienna about 1832. Despite this origin, it
is not known as the Vienna valve: that name applies to a third
design used nowadays only by members of the Vienna
Philharmonic Orchestra and horn players who aspire to join it.
4 Omnitonic horns
Contemporary with the development of the valve was a curious
dead end in the history of the horn. An omnitonic horn was
one which contained enough tubing to be put into a wide range
of keys by one of a variety of mechanical devices, such as slides
or rotary taps. This change, though much quicker than a crook
change, was not almost instantaneous like the valve, so that
the player still needed hand technique to play his part in
tune. The omnitonic horn never invaded Germany, where the use
of valves came early; it became obsolete around 1870, with the
spread of the two best valve designs, the improved Périnet
piston and the rotary.
5 Horns in the romantic period
As the horn is usually played in a range well above its
fundamental note, two valves, one descending a semitone and
the other a tone, suffice to give good fingerings for every
note from written A below middle C upwards. A third valve,
descending a tone and a half, fills in another octave
downward, in combination with the first two. Morley-Pegge
shows photographs of horns with only two valves, which he
dates as late as 1840. However, by the middle of the century
three valves were standard. In France and England these would
have been, with some exceptions, piston valves on an
instrument with terminal crooks and a body short enough to
allow a terminal crook of one short turn to pitch the
instrument in B flat alto. Each of the loops of tubing added by
the valve would have had a tuning slide, with a large range of
adjustment, since the amount of tubing which must be added to
cause the same relative pitch change is twice as much for the
B flat basso horn as for the B flat alto. In Germany and Eastern
Europe, except for Vienna, they would have been rotary valves
on an instrument derived from the Inventionshorn.
Gregory's15
chart implies that all horns descend directly from the end
crooked natural horn, the Inventionshorn being shown as a line
at the side with no modern descendants. The author disagrees
with this view: chromatic horns with the mouthpipe fixed to
the body and an intermediate position for insertion of a
parallel tuning slide were made both in France and in Germany
in the middle of the nineteenth century, are made in many
countries nowadays and are clearly descended from the
Inventionshorn or the cor solo. The end crooked chromatic
horn was not confined to France, though it persisted longest
there; Vienna horns (ie horns made in Vienna using the Vienna
valve) were made with end crooks also.
Foregoing the large range of tuning given by the short body
and numerous crooks of the French design of instrument allowed
the German makers of the later nineteenth century to optimise
the acoustic cross-section of the body tubing for the pitch of
the F horn. The single horn in F (ie an instrument with a
minimum length corresponding to the F harmonic series and with
three valves giving the B horn as maximum length) is fairly
light and robust, and has, provided the valves do not leak,
potential for a good characteristic horn sound. Its main
drawback is its unpredictability in the upper ranges, which
led to the marketing by Kruspe of the first double horn (ie
one in which valves give the range from B flat alto to B basso by
semitones) in 1898 and a more satisfactory version of it in
1900. This design, which pointed the way to horn development
in the twentieth century, makes a fitting conclusion to a
brief technical history of the romantic horn.
6 Attitudes to the chromatic horn
Valves of high quality, similar to those still in use today,
came fairly early in the existence of the chromatic horn.
However, the very earliest valves, and some of later
invention, were of dubious reliability or had adverse effects
upon the tone of the instrument. Consequently the new
invention was not greeted with universal acclaim. Moreover,
the virtuosi who could unify the sounds of the open and hand
stopped notes on the natural horn did not look with favour
upon a device which they supposed (many players of today would
claim not entirely accurately) to allow the same effects to be
obtained with no effort. Of course, attitudes varied, but
some were so negative that horns were made with detachable
valves on a slide which replaced the plain tuning slide, and
some makers went so far as to construct cases for these
instruments with false panels in the lids behind which such
valves could be concealed. The player could then arrive for a
performance apparently with the orthodox natural horn, use it
for the undemanding parts of the work to be performed and
surreptitiously insert the valves in time for a passage which
was beyond his hand technique.
The extremity of views on the acceptability of the new
development is shown in its full absurdity in France.
Dauprat, horn professor at the Paris Conservatoire in 1816 and
sole professor from 1817, was open minded. The description of
his post required him to teach natural horn but he was
sufficiently interested in the new instrument to write a
supplement for the two-valved horn to his Méthode de Cor Alto
et Cor Basse, though it seems not to have been published.
Moreover, it was during his time at the Conservatoire, in
1833, that his pupil, Meifred, became professor of the
valve-horn class.
Meifred held his last class in 1863, and no successor was
appointed to him on his retirement in 1864. Both Gallay,
Dauprat's successor in 1842, and Mohr, who succeeded Gallay on
the latter's death in 1864, were conservatives who wrote hand-
horn tutors. Consequently the valve-horn class was not
reinstated until 1897, after Brémond, who had been appointed
in succession to Mohr, obtained permission from the Principal
of the Conservatoire, Ambroise Thomas. Meanwhile, the
chromatic horn had become triumphant in orchestras throughout
Europe. Brémond, writing to Morley-Pegge, summarises the
Conservatoire's curious history: “Cor simple jusqu'en 1896 -
Cor simple et à Pistons de 1897 à 1902 - Cor à
Pistons depuis 1903”16
7 Composers, radical, conservative and pragmatic
Romantic composers showed the same range of attitudes as
performing musicians and critics. Some of them embraced the
new technology enthusiastically; others rejected it; a third
category attempted a synthesis of the new capabilities with a
style of writing for the instrument influenced by its earlier
limitations. In the following brief survey, attention is restricted
mainly to composers who wrote works for the horn
which are important for artistic or technical reasons.
7.1 Mendelssohn
Mendelssohn was a conservative in his horn writing, as in many
other aspects of his composition, all his horn parts being
intended for the natural horn. Two works are specially worth
noting: the Nocturne of the incidental music to “A Midsummer
Night's Dream” (1843)17, is an
outstandingly beautiful piece of
writing for hand horn in E, on which it is
readily playable. The writing for horns 3 and 4, in F, in the
scherzo of his Symphony No 3 (Scottish), though no
more demanding than Spohr's chamber music or Weber's
Concertino, is exceptionally difficult for an orchestral horn
part of the period.
7.2 Berlioz
Berlioz was by temperament a radical, asking for a valved
trumpet in his Opus 3, the overture to Les Franc-Juges, as
early as 1827. In the second edition of his “Grand Traité
d'Intrumentation”18 of 1855 he gives
a clear characterisation of the chromatic horn. However, his
description of the natural horn is longer and full of helpful
advice. Moreover, much of the horn writing in his own works
is for the natural instrument. A clue to his possible
attitude is given in his memoirs19.
He enthuses over the
chromatic horns which he finds at Stuttgart in 1842, and
claims that the rotary valve, as used all over Germany, is
superior to the piston. He may have disliked the tone of the
piston valved horns available to him in France, where even the
best valve design, the Périnet, had not reached its final
form. One can also regard him as a radical composer for the
natural horn, however, as shown by
the horn parts of the Scherzo (“Queen Mab”) of his
dramatic symphony Roméo et Juliette. He uses four natural
horns but, very unusually (though as recommended in his
“Traité”),
they are all crooked differently, so that he can maintain a
consistent orchestral timbre throughout an extended passage
which moves freely through several keys. In other works he
achieves uniformity of tone by giving the same melodic line to
the unison of two or more horns crooked in different keys, so
that each note occurs on at least one open horn, while the
other(s) may be lightly or heavily hand stopped. At the end
of his composing career, in the overture to “Béatrice
et Bénédict” (1862) he writes for two chromatic
horns in D and two natural horns in G (valves are not specifically
indicated, but need for them is clear from the part writing). It
is no surprise to deduce that
valved instruments were available at the Baden-Baden opera
where the work received its première: they were standard
throughout Germany and Austria by this date.
7.3 Schumann
Schumann was a radical in his use of the chromatic horn,
producing the first two major solo (soli in the second case)
works in its repertoire: the Adagio and Allegro for horn and
piano (versions with the horn replaced by 'cello or violin
exist also) and the Concertstück for four horns and orchestra
of 1849. Horn 1 of the latter remains exceedingly difficult,
being extremely high and having long passages with no rest.
Schumann writes for chromatic horns in his symphonies also,
using various crooks, but mostly in the middle range: F, E and
E flat.
7.4 Wagner
Wagner's horn writing developed through his composing career.
Blandford20 makes the case that
in Lohengrin Wagner wrote
for two chromatic and two natural horns. Blandford also notes
the impossible crook changes which are specified in the same
work and suggests convincingly that this arises from a
widespread view of the valves, from their first introduction
up to about 1860, that they were merely a convenient and quick
substitute for a crook change. In “Der Ring des
Nibelungen”
the horn parts are largely chromatic, though with some crook
changes. However, Wagner keeps the historic character of the
horn in mind in his part writing: Punto would have been happy
to play Siegfried's celebrated horn call on his natural horn
in F.
7.5 Brahms
Of all the composers considered herein, Brahms carried the
historic view of the horn to its greatest extreme. Long after
every professional horn player in Germany and Austria used a
chromatic instrument exclusively, all his horn parts were
written for the natural horn, though as Richard Merewether
writes21 “... there is
little likelihood that Brahms's meticulous horn parts were in
practice played on the `natural' instruments for which they are
notated, nor would they have sounded more effective for being
so”. Brahms typically writes
for two horns with one crook and two with another, though
occasionally (Haydn variations) he has three different crooks
in use simultaneously. He prescribes the C crook in 11 of his
16 symphonic movements and the E crook in 7. Since he
prescribes nothing higher than the G crook and that in only
one symphonic movement, we can be sure that his concept of
horn tone was mellow rather than penetrating.
7.6 Chaikovsky
Chaikovsky is representative of a number of late romantic
composers (Bruckner, Mahler and Rachmaninov were others) who
adapted thoroughly to the chromatic horn without a backward
glance, and always wrote for the F instrument. His horn parts
are rewarding and well adapted to the chromatic horn. The
solo which opens the slow movement of his Symphony No. 5 is
justly celebrated. He uses the solo horn in the same way as
the principal woodwind instruments and the whole section both
as an individual brass choir and as part of the complete brass
section with trumpets, trombones and tuba. His writing for
the brass instruments shows the chromatic horn at its peak of
esteem and also shows the increasing importance of the
trumpet, which was to demand a greater share of the limelight
in the acerbic twentieth century.
7.7 Richard Strauss
The son of a horn player, Strauss wrote two concertos for the
instrument, one at the beginning and the other at the end of
his career. The second exploits all the capabilities of the
chromatic horn and is very difficult. The first, consciously
backward looking and somewhat resembling the music of
Mendelssohn, is ostensibly written for the natural horn
(Waldhorn is indicated on the title page) and, indeed, is playable, though not
easy, on the open E flat horn. Strauss retained a somewhat
old-fashioned attitude to the horn to the end of his life: in
the second of his “Vier letzte Lieder” (1948),
“September”, he asks
for horns 3 and 4 to be crooked in D and in the fourth, “Im
Abendrot”, in E flat. By that date these parts would have been
played on F horns in all countries except, perhaps, France.
7.8 Dukas
In the few orchestral works that he did not destroy, Dukas
exploited all the resources of the orchestra of his time. In
one work, however, he introduces conscious archaism. The
“Villanelle” for horn and piano (published 1906) was
commissioned as a test piece for the Paris Conservatoire and
is dedicated to Brémond, horn professor at the time. It has
two substantial passages which are intended to be played
without valves on the F horn, the remainder exploiting the
valves, so that both aspects of the students technique are
tested.
7.9 Ravel
A final example, the latest the author has yet discovered [this essay was written before the publication and first performance of Ligeti's Horn Concerto], of a
post-Classical composer writing for natural horn:
in 1910 Ravel orchestrated the “Pavane pour une infante
défunte”, which he had written as a piano piece in
1899. The
original score, published by Max Eschig and reproduced by
Dover22, has the horn stave
annotated, “2 Cors simples en sol”, and both parts are
playable with standard hand technique
on the natural G horn. Unlike Brahms and Strauss, Ravel may
actually have had some expectation of the technique being
used, since its teaching at the Paris Conservatoire had only
just come to an end. However, rather than the instrument specified,
he probably expected his players to use either a chromatic horn
crooked in G or an instrument with an ascending third valve,
depression of which shortens the instrument and raises its pitch by
a tone.
8 The natural horn today
Interest in old instruments started in this country with
Arnold Dolmetsch, but he was concerned mostly with stringed
instruments and recorders. The figure most associated with
old wind and brass instruments was Francis Galpin (1858-1945).
With the founding of the Galpin Society in 1946, this interest
became more widespread. It has gathered considerable strength
and become associated with the aims of “authentic” or
“historically informed” performance. This is both an
amateur
and a professional activity. As far as the horn is concerned,
makers now market natural horns of several different designs
and repairers remove valves from old piston horns with crooks
to create instruments which differ little in design from the
natural horns of 1800 (though modern players usually play on
modern mouthpieces which are substantially different).
During the last decade or so, some of the best professional
players have made a study of hand horn technique and achieved
high standards, though, for the present [1997], recording may be the
preferred way to present their skills to the public. The use
of appropriate replica instruments is well established for the
classical repertoire, but has some way to go in the romantic
period. However, both John Eliot Gardiner, with his Orchestre
Révolutionnaire et Romantique, and Roger Norrington, with
the London Classical Players, have made a start on Berlioz.
[August 2004: Simon Rattle has now conducted the Orchestra of
the Age of Enlightenment in a performance of "Das Rheingold" at a
BBC Promenade Concert. The BBC Proms guide claims that this is
"the first time a Wagner opera as been played on original
instruments in modern times".]
9 Conclusions
The addition of the valve to the horn was a long and
contentious business, partly because of the poor quality of
many of the designs of valve marketed from 1820 to 1850,
partly because of the virtuosity of many players on the
natural instrument, throughout the nineteenth century but
particularly at its beginning. The older instrument continued
to influence composers, even when they knew that what they
wrote would be played on a chromatic horn in F with no
possibility of fitting crooks. With the advent of players
capable of playing the natural horn to a standard comparable
with that of the virtuosi of the early nineteenth century,
there is at last the possibility of hearing some romantic
works in the manner which the composers prescribed.
References
1. Morley-Pegge, R., The French Horn, Ernest Benn Ltd.,
London, second edition 1973, Plate I, No 1.
2. Ibid, Plate II, No 6.
3. Fitzpatrick, H, The Horn and Horn-playing and the Austro-
Bohemian Tradition, Oxford, 1970.
4. Morley-Pegge, R., The French Horn, Ernest Benn Ltd.,
London, second edition 1973, p. 87.
5. Ibid, p. 89.
6. Ibid, p. 20.
7. Ibid, p. 21.
8. Ibid, p. 21.
9. Ibid, pp. 22 and 154-163
10. Myers, H.W., Slide trumpet madness: fact or fiction?,
Early Music, XVII (1989), p. 383.
11. Polk, K., The trombone, the slide trumpet and the
ensemble tradition of the early Renaissance , loc. cit.,
p. 389.
12. Duffin, R.W., The trompette des menestrels in the 15th-
century alta capella , loc.cit., p. 397.
13. McGowan, K, The world of the early sackbut player: flat
or round? , Early Music, XXII (1994), p. 441.
14. Smithers, D.L., Mozart's orchestral brass , Early Music,
XX (1992), p. 255.
15. Gregory, R., The Horn, Faber and Faber, London, second
edition, 1969, p.27.
16. Brémond, F., letter to Morley-Pegge, 1922, in
Morley-Pegge, R., loc. cit.
17. Labar, A., Horn Player's Audition Handbook, Belwyn Mills,
1986.
18. Berlioz, H., Treatise on Instrumentation, Kalmus,
1948.
19. Cairns, D., ed. and trans., The Memoirs of Hector
Berlioz, Gollancz, London, 1969, p. 277.
20. Blandford, H., Wagner and the Horn Parts of Lohengrin,
Musical Times, September, October 1922.
21. Brahms, J., Complete Horn Parts: the four symphonies, The
Horn Centre, London, 1972.
22. Ravel, M., Four orchestral works in full score, Dover
Publications, Inc., New York, 1989.